Halloween and Physiology: The spooky effects of ghosts, costumes, and candy!

With Halloween night just hours away (8 hours to be exact), I thought it might be useful to prepare by understanding the neurological, psychological, and digestive effects of this spooky night. From watching scary moves, inhaling mass amounts of candy, and prancing around in costumes with friends, Halloween creates vast changes throughout the body.

Let’s start with costume wearing: will you be a hero or a villain? According to Medcuator Health Sciences Journal, research shows that dressing up as villains with a group of friends increases one’s chances of committing crime due to masked identity and a sense of anonymity—this is called the Theory of Deindividuation. On the other hand, dressing up in hero costumes with friends can cause release of oxytocin, which triggers serotonin affecting the nucleus accumbens area of the brain generating feelings of bliss and increasing social bonding. So, it is wise to think twice before putting on your costume tonight!

Furthermore, the Halloween season encourages participating in all things spooky; between scary movies, haunted houses, and kids in creepy costumes running around, the brain is constantly reacting to these stimuli and reacting to fear. First, the amygdala, responsible for emotions, assesses the spooky visual and auditory stimuli and triggers a standard fear response. The hippocampus then incorporates memories of these sounds and images and generates an emotional response. The prefrontal cortex, which is in charge of reasoning, continues to evaluate the stimuli and associated emotions to create a logical response. Additionally, the brain reacts to dim lighting by releasing dopamine into the frontal cortex increasing self control and cautious instincts. Each of these responses from different regions of the brain work together to activate the sympathetic nervous system and generate a “fight or flight response” increasing heart rate, dilating the pupils, and increasing sweat production according to a study published by the University of Wisconsin Department of Physiology. In the midst of all the zombies, vampires, and chainsaw murderers tonight, be sure to thank your Autonomic Nervous System!

Last but certainly not least, let’s discuss the effects of candy on our bodies. We have all heard time and time again about the negative consequences of sugar consumption: tooth decay, weight gain, and decreased nutrient intake to name a few. However, a report published by Newsmax reveals the many positive outcomes of eating candy (in moderation, of course). These include decreased risk of depression as chocolate contains serotonin, which acts as an antidepressant, as well as prolonged lifespan due to the antioxidant phenol present in candy (and red wine). Peppermint candy is often linked to improved ability to concentrate and easing digestion. Perhaps most compelling, a compound found in cocoa beans has been shown by the Georgetown University Medical Center to slow the growth of CANCER and speed obliteration of tumor cells. I don’t know about you guys, but if these aren’t reasons to eat some Twix bars tonight, I don’t know what is!

Have a fun, safe, and spooky Halloween!

References: 

1. Meducator Health Sciences Journal: http://www.meducator.org/blog/2013/11/4/o1u82fy4xyw14shqylcgrtve7w1ry7

2. Wisconsin Study on Fear and Sympathetic Nervous System: http://jass.neuro.wisc.edu/2012/01/Lab%20603%20Group%2010%20Final%20Submission%20Ramsey,%20Rolnick,%20Smith.pdf

3. Newsmax: 

http://www.newsmax.com/Health/Headline/candy-chocolate-health-benefits-peppermint/2013/08/11/id/519812/

The mind can heal itself, just meditate on that

As we enter a more stressful time of the semester, students must find a way to cope with the stress. Some people exercise, others watch tv, but there has been an increasing amount of research that suggests mindfulness and meditation may be the best way to combat stress. 

When researchers want to study stress they tend to turn to those who have the most severe symptoms and are easily coaxed into an anxious state. Among these are those who suffer from anxiety disorders, PTSD, and especially Gulf War Illness. It is estimated about 175,000 veterans who participated in the Gulf War have developed persistent health problems, such as musculoskeletal pain, fatigue, and cognitive difficulties, which lead to the diagnosis of Gulf War Illness.

There are conventional treatments which have had some success in treated the symptoms of Gulf War Illness, however none have been able to completely eradicate the pain, tiredness, and mental problems. A recent study was published in The American Journal of Medicine (link below), which looked at the effects of using Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction (MBSR) in addition to conventional treatments to increase the effectiveness.The veterans in the study where required to practice the MBSR for 8 weeks which included a weekly practices and homework, and the practices involved different forms of meditation and light yoga in an effort to make the patient focus on their his/her self and the surroundings. Immediately after the 8 week MBSR treatment and 6 months after the treatment had ended, the veterans self reported lower levels of pain, fatigue, cognitive failure, and depression (if the veteran also suffered from PTSD). 

Mindfulness and meditation has been indicated as a way to lower a person's current stress levels, however this study indicates it can also be used to effectively treat stress related disorders for at least up to 6 months after treatment. This information may be a good alternative to medications, would be cost effective, and have less side effects than any pharmaceutical treatment for those who suffer from stress and anxiety disorders. However it can also be indicated to help anyone who experiences stress and needs a way to cope with it. 

"Mindfulness-Based Stress Reduction in Addition to Usual Care is Associated with Improvements in Pain, Fatigue and Cognitive Failures Among Veterans with Gulf War Illness"

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0002934315009985

The mystery of pain, could brain scans be the key to decoding it?

Accurately measuring pain is a major concern in modern medicine.  Currently physicians are obtaining pain scales from patients based self reporting, as you can imagine this can be problematic especially when physicians have to make clinically important decisions.  These pain scales are not standardized in the medical industry and there are currently twenty or more variations.    

In 2013, neuroscientists from the University of Colorado (boulder), New York University, John Hopkins University, and the University of Michigan began using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to identify objective measures of pain.  By looking at the scans of 114 subjects they developed a method to measure and predict pain intensity at the individual level.  Their method involved the study of neurological signatures, which are patterns of brain activity seen when the subjects were exposed to pain stimuli.  These signatures are transferable across different people, allowing the team to predict pain intensity with over 95% accuracy.  

More recently a Philadelphia start up company PainQx,  is a developing a program to help push the frontier of pain assessment.  This program uses EEG (electroencephalogram) measurements to objectively answer the question of: how much does it hurt? Advances in brain mapping is allowing the PainQx program to study electro-activity of a patients to brain to map out a patients pain reaction.  The current CEO of PainQx, Frank Minella, states that the next steps for this technology is to implement its use in pain management clinical trials and then transition it into nursing homes and assisted living centers where patients ability to communicate pain may be limited.  

Overall, this technology has the potential to change the status quo and usher in a new understanding of pain management and assessment.  It could help reduce the need for pain medication preventing over treatment and addiction.  

References:

1. George dvorsky. (2015). Io9. Retrieved 26 October, 2015, from http://io9.com/scientists-succeed-in-objectively-measuring-pain-472456061

In-text citation: (George dvorsky, 2015)

2. Medcitynewscom. (2015). MedCity News. Retrieved 26 October, 2015, from http://medcitynews.com/2015/06/objectively-measuring-pain-device/?rf=1

In-text citation: (Medcitynewscom, 2015)

Do certain males compensate for a “lack of size”? Cambridge University believes they may and the way in which they do so shouldn’t surprise you.

Everyone has heard the idea that certain males may overcompensate for a lack of reproductive ability by being boisterous, overconfident, and overly aggressive.  Perhaps their lack of reproductive ability changes their neuro-chemical balance or physiology in ways to help them have a greater chance of attractive a mate to improve odds of passing on their genetics.  Until recently there was a lack of scientific evidence backing this claim, however Cambridge University recently completed a study on Howler monkeys that shows there is a direct relationship between how loud they are and the size/reproductive ability of their testes.

Howler monkeys are one of the loudest animals in the world and they use this roar to attract potential mates.  The size of the male hyoid bone in the neck varies considerably and allows them to utter a deep guttural roar that can be heard up to 3 miles away.  When comparing the monkeys at varying ends of the noise spectrum, loudest to quietest, Cambridge researchers found an intriguing fact; males with the loudest roars also had the smallest testes and the least ability to produce sperm.  The opposite was the case for the quietest monkeys.  Additionally, researches found that the loudest males tend to live in distinctly different social groups in which they are a dominant figure that has exclusive mating privileges with several females.  Males with better testes and lesser vocal abilities lived in larger groups with as many as 6 additional males where all females are available to be mated with.  These two models show the different of “power of voice” over “quantity/quality of sperm” and how each model directly relates to the unique abilities of each male to potentially reproduce.    

This research is a great example of sexual selection that was first proposed by Darwin in 1871.  It reinforces the fact that when it comes to when it comes to reproduction it is rare to find the highest level of reproductive fitness in one individual.   Other evidence has been seen linking investment in large bodies, bright colors, or physical weaponry to a decrease in reproductive ability, but howler monkeys have show the first relation of a trade off between vocal capabilities and sperm production. 

Although human beings are quite different from howler monkeys, we still share similar genetic traits passed down from primate lineage.  Could it be that louder, more aggressive males are perhaps unknowingly making up for what they are lacking in?  Perhaps our stereotypes weren’t so off after all. 

Citation:

1.     Dunn et al. 2015. Evolutionary Trade-Off between Vocal Tract and Testes Dimensions in Howler Monkeys. Current Biology, 1-6, DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2015.09.029

-First read on www.sciencedirect.com

Cancer Drug Effective Against Parkinson’s and Dementia?

The leukemia drug, nilotinib appears to reduce the symptoms in people who have Lewy Body Dementia and Parkinson’s with dementia. These neurodegenerative diseases all have toxic protein build-up problems, which is what nilotinib seemingly targets. In a recent pilot study, 12 individuals were given small doses of nilotinib and the results were hopeful. Movement and mental function improved in all 11 subjects who completed the 6 month trial. One woman regained the ability to feed herself, while one man began to walk without his walker, and one nonverbal patient actually started speaking again. Furthermore, nilotinib was injected to paralyzed mice with Parkinson’s and the mice regained movement. Blood and spinal fluid samples from these mice showed decreased levels of toxic protein build up as well. 

Researchers hypothesize that nilotinib activates a system that works like a garbage disposal, riding the brain cells of the toxic protein build-up that is common in these types of neurodegenerative diseases. Further research must be carried out of course to better understand the mechanisms at work and any short or long term risks. There is of course a downside already known about this hopeful leukemia drug-it is very expensive. Dementia and Parkinson’s patients would have to stay on nilotinib indefinitely to maintain their quality of life, and at thousands of dollars per month, it isn’t very accessible to the general public.

This topic is very near and dear to my heart because my grandfather had Lewy Body Dementia and suffered from the nasty symptoms that drastically decreased his quality of life. It is really hard to watch a loved one go through this horrible decline and care give for someone who literally can’t do anything on his or her own. I hope that nilotinib really lives up to all of this hype and becomes more affordable in the future!

http://www.npr.org/sections/health-shots/2015/10/17/448323916/can-a-cancer-drug-reverse-parkinsons-disease-and-dementia

Alcohol and Exercise Affect Declining Kidney Function

We are able to make assumptions of cardiovascular and metabolic syndrome risks based on the lifestyles led by the individual; however, there has not been any long-term studies to suggest that certain lifestyles can result in increased risk for incident chronic kidney disease (CKD). 7,473 healthy individuals were enrolled into this study that took data on alcohol consumption, exercise frequency, and sleep duration. These individuals were tracked over the course of 3, 6, and 9 year intervals.

The study concluded: “Small amount of alcohol consumed and high exercise frequency were associated with the increased risk of loss of kidney function in the male groups. These findings suggest that, regardless of obesity, alcohol consumption and exercise may affect loss of kidney function in healthy males.” Sleep patterns showed to have no correlation to CKD.

It was interesting to see that these results applied to men but not women. It is believed that estrogen prevents CKD progression by lowering the cardiovascular stress response to adrenergic stimuli. Alcohol has also been shown to increase estrogen in women while decreasing testosterone. These findings have suggested that alcohol consumption may modify the effect of sex hormones on the loss of kidney function.

While some of us may believe that regular alcohol consumption of any amount can be offset by a healthy diet and regular exercise, this study has shown that is incorrect. Through my time as a collegiate athlete, many of my teammates believed that they were somehow immune to diseases such as CKD because of their healthy diets and exercise habits. This false belief can prove to be detrimental to anyone who believes that alcohol consumption is somehow offset by living a healthy lifestyle outside of that consumption.

Kanda, E., Muneyuki, T., Suwa, K., & Nakajima, K. (2015). Alcohol and Exercise Affect Declining Kidney Function in Healthy Males Regardless of Obesity: A Prospective Cohort Study. Plos ONE, 10(8), 1-11. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0134937

Abstract available here:

http://web.a.ebscohost.com.dml.regis.edu/ehost/detail/detail?sid=5657cb0b-04fc-4365-af3e-40a64856d89c%40sessionmgr4001&vid=0&hid=4214&bdata=JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZSZzY29wZT1zaXRl#AN=108686606&db=aph

What is Palliative Care's Role in Medicine?

Palliative care has become a growing medical specialty in the United Sates with a large amount of evidence showing that palliative care teams enhance the quality of health care for persons living with serious illness and for their families while also reducing medical expenditures (1). A recent review in the New England Journal of Medicine discussed the differences between palliative care and hospice in the United States (2). Palliative care is the interdisciplinary care (medicine, nursing, social work, and other specialties) that focuses on improving quality of life for persons of any age who are living with a serious illness and for their families (2). According to the NEJM review “palliative care should be initiated at the time of diagnosis and is provided concordantly with all other disease-directed or curative treatments”.

In contrast, hospice is the formal system of interdisciplinary care that provides palliative care services to the dying in the last months of life. One of the issues that complicates hospice and palliative care in the United States is the varying levels of insurance coverage as well as what we define as necessary medical improvements of life quality. “In the United States, unlike most other countries, hospice is a relatively separate system of care for the terminally ill. Eligibility criteria are defined by insurance benefits and federal programs, and Medicare-certified hospices are subject to strict regulatory requirements” (2). Currently in order to qualify for hospice, a patient must have a doctor’s prognosis of survival of 6 months of less and are willing to forgo curative treatments. I have volunteered with hospice departments in hospitals, and seen patients go on and off hospice care because insurance coverage drops them or deems it unsubstantiated. It is valid that more studies should be done showing the efficacy of palliative care and its affects of overall quality of life, this will help insurance companies as well as medical providers to recognize the vital part of healthcare palliative care and hospice provide. The question is what does our healthcare system aim to provide to patients? If the answer is to increase quality of life, the discussion of end of life care is a very pertinent and difficult aspect of healthcare that needs to be addressed.

Ideally many of the components of palliative care can and be should be provided by primary treating clinicians, “much in the way that uncomplicated hypertension or diabetes is managed by primary care physicians rather than by cardiologists or endocrinologists” (2).  But the reality of the matter is that most doctors/providers/extenders have limited or no formal training in these areas. Especially considering there already is a shortage of primary care physicians it is unrealistic to think primary care will be able to handle the large increase of patients who fall into the category of benefiting from hospice care. According to the NEJM review “approximately 1.8 million U.S. residents live in nursing homes, and this number is expected to double by 2030, palliative care needs of this population are vast” (2). 

Healthcare in this country has the goal of improving quality of life for patients, and doing so does not mean simply finding a cure or procedure or treatment for a symptom. Many randomized, controlled trials and case studies of palliative care interventions have shown “reductions in patients’ symptoms and health care utilization and improvements in quality of life and family satisfaction across a wide spectrum of populations, including patients with advanced cancer, neurologic disease, or lung disease and older adults with multiple coexisting conditions and frailty” (2).  So why are patients having trouble accessing palliative or hospice care? “The number of palliative care specialists falls far short of what is necessary to serve the population in need” A 2010 study found 6000 to 18,000 additional physicians are needed to meet the current demand in the inpatient setting alone (3).

Another alarming aspect of palliative care  in the U.S. is regional, socioeconomic, and racial ethnic group determinants influence access to palliative care (2). According to the NEJM review, “ persons of minority races and ethnic groups access palliative care and hospice services far less frequently than do whites” (2). This statistic is especially concerning considering there groups have “higher rates of inadequately treated pain, preference-discordant medical treatments, and low satisfaction with care and provider communication” (4).

The term hospice and palliative care seem like negative and bad things when introduced to patients mainly due to wrong perceptions and politically charged debates by insurance companies. Perceptions among doctors that palliative care is only appropriate at end of life, and that is it synonymous with hospice, leads to patients negative reaction toward palliative discussions, and the loss of all hope phenomena if palliative care referral is discussed (2). According to this articles review, a recent survey showed that “90% of adults in the U.S. had either no knowledge or limited knowledge of palliative care, and when read the definition stated that they would want palliative care for themselves of their family members and that it should be universally available” (2).

Moving forward more data and research needs to be conducted showing how palliative care teams enhance the quality of health care for persons living with serious illness and for their families which also reducing medical expenditures. This article showed a very interesting aspect of healthcare in this country that has been seemingly ignored by many professionals in medicine as well as  by patients and patient's families.

1. http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/nvsr/nvsr61/nvsr61_06.pdf

2. Kelley, A. Morrison, S. Palliative Care for the Seriously Ill. N Engl J Med 2015; 373:747-755August 20, 2015DOI: 10.1056/NEJM ra1404684 http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJMra1404684

3. Lupu D; American Academy of Hospice and Palliative Medicine Workforce Task Force. . Estimate of current hospice and palliative medicine physician workforce shortage. J Pain Symptom Manage 2010;40:899-911

4. Johnson KS. Racial and ethnic disparities in palliative care. J Palliat Med 2013;16:1329-1334

Yes, you still have to go to the gym.

Everyone wants to be fit and look great, but do we really have to diet AND exercise?

Our diets play an essential role in our metabolism and body composition.  BBC News claimed that low-fat diets were better than cutting carbs for weight loss; however, the results collected were quite the opposite.  A recent study from the National Institute of Health used an extreme diet, low-fat or low-carb, for 19 obese men and women over six days for several weeks.  The results showed that the low-fat diet led to greater fat loss but not weight loss while the low-carb diet led to greater weight loss but not fat loss.  Their physical activity was controlled to 60 minutes of treadmill walking per day.  The results yielded evidence that the low-carb diet can affect metabolism much more than a low-fat diet and leads to more fat and energy burning (1).

However, there are some diets, like the Mediterranean diet, that has a high intake of fat and has been shown to reduce body weight over time (2).  The diet suggests individuals stick with it for at least six months.  The main components of the diet include plant-based foods, high dairy intake, and high consumption of fatty foods like avocados and olives (3).  Although the results of the Mediterranean diet show a reduction in body weight, this reduction increased by 10% in combination with exercise (2). 

A Professor of Diet and Population Health at the University of Oxford, Dr. Susan Jebb, stated, "The real challenge for science is not the nutritional composition of the diet, but the behavioral strategies to promote adherence (1).  It is a major challenge for people to stick with any diet outside of a lab setting where all the meals and exercise are controlled.

A study of weight loss among obese Americans observed numerous factors in weight loss, including diet and exercise.  The results showed the largest decrease in body weight from the group that ate less fat and exercised more frequently in combination (4).

So the take-home message for weight loss is clear: eat less, exercise more.  A low-carb diet will increase metabolism and yield a greater weight loss, while a low-fat diet will decrease body fat, but either diet in combination with exercise, will lead to weight loss!




1. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/behindtheheadlines/news/2015-08-14-low-fat-diet-better-than-low-carb-diet-for-getting-rid-of-body-fat/

2. http://www.ncbi.nlm.gov/pubmed/20973675

3. http://www.webmd.com/food-recipes/guide/the-mediterranean-diet

4. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/22516488

Is It a Bug, or Is It Grief?

            There are many mechanisms that come into play when an animal becomes stressed. Just like a human, a dog’s sympathetic nervous system kicks into gear. It releases all sorts of hormones, and neurotransmitters. Wolf populations’ stressors have yet to be examined by the scientific community. A study was published in PubMed and PLOS one journals that looked at the free-range wild wolf packs in France, Italy, and the United States. A pack was defined as at least one male and one female traveling together. All of the locations chosen were at the same latitude, similar climates, and environments.

            The wolves were tested for stress levels and the circumstances surrounding any peaks in their stress. Fecal cortisol metabolite (FCM) concentrations were examined. These concentrations would be the standard index as to whether or not the animal was stressed. This is also a safer option for the researchers, since working with wolves is dangerous in the first place. Fecal samples are far easier to obtain than blood.

            The researchers discovered that the wolves had increased FCM when a member or members of the pack died, and when the wolves were infected with intestinal parasites. There were no correlations between sex, age, or social status among the wolves. The common correlations were between elevated stress levels and parasites, and stress levels and loss of a pack member. Wolves are highly social animals. They form bonds with the members of their pack. If one is lost that they mated with or was just an important part of their hunting life, then the wolves displayed higher levels of FCM.

            This study shows that whether a social creature is human or a wild animal, that a loss in the tight-knit community can put stress on the group dynamic. This stress can be comparable to an intestinal sickness.

References: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4580640/

Could Cannabis be the Solution to PTSD?

While it may be regarded by some as a ‘soldiers’ disease studies have found that post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) affects about 9%  of the U.S population and almost 8% of the European population. Furthermore, almost a third of patients who receive a diagnosis of PTSD will not see recovery even after many years of treatment. While monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAO-I) have previously used with some success to reduce some of the symptoms of PTSD, new research has suggested a different type of pharmacological approach might achieve substantially greater success. This new approach centres on the endocannabinoid system which can be triggered by agonistic ligands such as the Colorado favourite, cannabis.

This research has stemmed from the data that shows that cannabis abuse is higher amongst Vietnam veterans who have been diagnosed with PTSD and the notion that the abuse could be stemming from some attempt to self-medicate.

Cannabis is known to work by activating the CB1 and CB2 receptors in the brain that are usually regulated by the endocannabinoid anandamide (ANA). Studies have shown that these receptors are linked to the consolidation, retrieval, and extinction of emotionally charged memories. Furthermore, these studies have shown that patients with PTSD tend to have an upregulation of CB1 receptors in the brain that coincides with low levels of ANA. The studies then sought to see what occurred when the administration of an ANA agonist did to the formation of PTSD in a subject. The studies found that, in rodents, ANA agonists did disrupt the retrieval while facilitating the extinction of emotionally arousing experiences. However, some did discover that too early of an administration caused the agonist to actually exacerbate the original consolidation of the experience.

There is also some research going into whether or not the activation of CB1 and CB2 receptors have some downstream effect on glucocorticoid production through interaction with the HPA axis.

While cannabinoids seem to be a promising treatment for PTSD much more research is needed in order to discover their true ability to heal as well as their potential to be abused. I think that the administration of a agonist that helps regulate ANA levels without producing the psychogenic effects of cannabis would most likely be the best candidate for a viable treatment in those suffering from PTSD. However, since the popularization of cannabis will it be the more sought after/cheaper treatment or will sufferers look to a less abused option? Also why is there a possibility of ANA agonists making PTSD more severe when taken too soon after a traumatic experience, is it a difference between the two receptors? If there is a difference between the receptors could an antagonist at one be used to prevent the consolidation of the memory immediately after the traumatic event and the agonist of the other be used to prevent its retrieval?

References

Hauer, D., Kaufmann, I., Strewe, C., Briegel, I., Campolongo, P., & Schelling, G. (2014). The role of glucocorticoids, catecholamines and endocannabinoids in the development of traumatic memories and posttraumatic stress symptoms in survivors of critical illness. Neurobiology Of Learning & Memory, 11268-74. doi:10.1016/j.nlm.2013.10.003

Neumeister, A., Seidel, J., Ragen, B. J., & Pietrzak, R. H. (2015). Translational evidence for a role of endocannabinoids in the etiology and treatment of posttraumatic stress disorder. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 51577-584. doi:10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.10.012

Trezza, V., & Campolongo, P. (2013). The endocannabinoid system as a possible target to treat both the cognitive and emotional features of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Frontiers In Behavioral Neuroscience, 7doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2013.00100

Using CRISPR Gene Editing Techniques on Humans, Pigs and Beyond

CRISPR (clustered , regularly interspaced, short palindromic repeats (1)) is a fairly recent genome editing tool that holds great promise. It is not exactly something humans invented, but rather is part of a normally occurring bacterial process—it is a defense mechanism found in a wide range of bacteria. “CRISPR is one part of a bacteria’s immune system, which keeps bits of dangerous viruses around so it can recognize and defend against those viruses next time they attack (1)” The next part of CRIPSR defense is a set of enzymes called CRISPR-associated viruses also known as CAS enzymes which specifically and precisely snip DNA and slice out any invading viruses.  The best-known Cas enzyme is Cas9, and comes from the bacterium that causes strep throat. The CRIPSR/Cas9 system, also known as just CRISPR and is a more precise way of editing the genome using bacterial machinery of editing (3). “Cas9 is an enzyme that snips DNA, and CRISPR is a collection of DNA sequences that tells Cas9 exactly where to snip, therefore all biologists need to do is feed Cas9 the right sequence, called a guide RNA, and then you can cut and paste bits of DNA sequence into your genome wherever you want (2).”

So, why does this matter? Researchers hope to use this quick and efficient gene editing technique in order to adjust human genes to eliminate diseases.  Another specific application is in organ transplants, so adjusting cells of the donor organ organism using CRISPR. Geneticist George Church of Harvard Medical School announced that he and his colleagues had used CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing technology to inactivate 62 porcine endogenous retroviruses in pig embryos (2). These pig viruses are embedded in the pigs’ genomes and cannot be treated, and “it is feared that they could cause disease in human transplant recipients” (3). Church’s lab also identified “genes that encode for proteins that sit on the surface of a pig cells and are known to trigger a human immune response or cause blood clotting” , something that occurs following organ transplantation (3). This seems great, use readily available and relatively inexpensive pig organs, modify them using CRISPR , in a way “humanizing” them in order to increase the success rate of transplant acceptance, and decrease rejection.  But in reality we are far from understanding exactly how this all works. These pig to human transplants have been attempted a few times around the world and have all ended pretty badly, “a Los Angeles woman who got a pig liver died within 34 hours”, and “the last time a doctors transplanted a pig heart into a person in India in 1996, he was arrested for murder” (4). But the most promising pig transplant news came this year as researchers reported they have kept a pig heart alive in a baboon for 945 days (4).

Genetically modifying organisms, whether they be human, pig or baboon, has been up for bioethical debate ever since this technology became available. This year researchers edited non-viable human embryos using CRISPR/Cas 9 to modify a gene that can cause a potentially fatal blood disorder called beta-thalassaemia when it is mutated (5). According to some using CRISPR/Cap9 procedure “if done in a viable embryo, could eradicate devastating genetic diseases before a baby is even born” (5). Others say “that such work crosses an ethical line: in response to the rumors that the work was being carried out, researchers warned in Nature and Science in March that because the genetic changes to embryos—a procedure known as germ line modification—are heritable, they could have an unpredictable effect on future generations” (5). Overall as science and technology advances such as CRISPR/Cas9 emerge, the ethical ramifications of applying those new technologies must be appropriately understood.

1.  Ledford, H. CRISPR the disruptor: A powerful gene-editing technology is the biggest game changer to hit biology since PCR. But with its huge potential come pressing concerns. Nature 03 June 2015. http://www.nature.com/news/crispr-the-disruptor-1.17673

2. http://gizmodo.com/everything-you-need-to-know-about-crispr-the-new-tool-1702114381

3. Reardon, S. Gene Editing record smashed in pigs. 06 Ocotber 2015 Nature

http://www.nature.com/news/gene-editing-record-smashed-in-pigs-1.18525?WT.mc_id=TWT_NatureNews

4. http://www.technologyreview.com/news/540076/surgeons-smash-records-with-pig-to-primate-organ-transplants/

5. Cyranoski, D. Reardon, S. Embryo editing sparks epic debate: In wake of paper describing genetic modification of human embryos, scientists disagree about ethics.  29 April 2015. Nature.
http://www.nature.com/news/embryo-editing-sparks-epic-debate-1.17421